the american how give the soviets the nuclair bumb

 After World War II; America was the only one with the secret to building a nuclear bomb, which gave it a source of power and hegemony over the world.

Theodore Hall is an American spy who pulled the rug under the feet of his country, and leaked this secret to the Soviets, but the strange thing was that he escaped from punishment, what is the story, how is that? This is what we will know in this post.

Theodore Hall was born in New York City in 1925 at the time of the Great Depression from Jewish parents, the economic crisis greatly affected his family and his father lost his job, which forced them to move to Washington, but all these difficult living conditions did not hinder him from learning or rather mastery.

Hall showed extraordinary ingenuity in mathematics and science, which made him join Townsend Harris High School for Gifted Boys at an early age, to end up with a graduate at Harvard University in 1944 at the age of eighteen.

A year later, at the recommendation of American physicist John Van Fleck, Hall was among the youngest scientists recruited to work on the secret Manhattan Project to research a nuclear bomb, where he actively participated in the manufacture of the atomic bomb called "Fat Man."

According to what he said later, Hall was at that time concerned about the danger of his country alone possessing the atomic bomb, which, according to his opinion, threatens the transformation of America into a fascist force threatening world security and peace.

Theodore Hall was influenced by Marxist thought based on his fellow dorm room mate Savile Sachs, who was born and raised in New York City but to Russian immigrant parents, Sachs was a fanatical communist, and he was the one who recruited Theodore Hall to work for the Soviets as a spy to transmit nuclear information.

In December of the year 1944 Hall and his friend Sacks leaked the first American nuclear secrets, the leaks were information containing everything you need about the manufacture of the plutonian bomb, and they remained with them for a long period of correspondence and detailed leaks.

Less than five years later, on August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union announced the manufacture of its first plutonium nuclear bomb, known as RDS-1, which was very similar to the American bomb known as "Fat Man".

The announcement came as a piece of snow and a strong surprise to the Americans, because this great similarity between the Russian bomb and the American "Fat Matt" bomb led them to suspect the leakage of their confidential information. Therefore, investigation and investigation efforts intensified.

In 1950, while Hall was working on his PhD at the University of Chicago, elements of the FBI raided his home. He was investigated and faced with charges of espionage in favor of Moscow, but he did not confess and denied all charges.

The Americans had leaked Russian cables confirming Hall's involvement in transmitting classified US data related to the manufacture of the atomic bomb, but the disclosure of that evidence would reveal to the Soviets the ability of Washington to decode its secret messages, and thus it would change its approach, which would greatly harm US intelligence plans.

The Americans preferred not to disclose their evidence, so when Hall was brought to court, the jury only found him acquitted of the charges against him, due to the lack of evidence of his involvement, and as a result of these considerations, Hall escaped with punishment.

In fact, the telegrams did not even confront him at the time, so as not to convey the news to the Russians!

After his release, Hall remained concerned about his arrest and indictment again, which prompted him to give up residency in America and move to the United Kingdom, after receiving an offer from the University of Cambridge to work there.

Hall was referred to retirement in 1984 after a life full of paradoxes, where he had quiet years, before his past attacked him again in 1996, when his story was revealed by lifting the secrecy of his telegrams with the Russians, and it became available to all.

At the time, Theodore Hall told the New York Times: "They claimed, I changed the course of history. Perhaps if it hadn't changed, the world would have witnessed a nuclear war in the past 50 years - and the bomb might have been dropped on China, for example in 1949 - well, if I had prevented it from happening." So, I accept the charge. "

The example that Hall intended in 1949 was when Mao Zedong declared the People's Republic of China on 10/1/1949 and brought down the pro-American Kuomintang government.

Were it not that the Russians had nuclear as a deterrent, America would have used nuclear weapons again

Howe lived for the rest of his life in Britain and died after suffering kidney cancer in 1999 at the age of 74

The invention that will change the world

 What is the last thing they reached in the world of technology?

Reading time 00:45 «

There are many things that technological advancements have achieved in recent years in all fields, and perhaps the most prominent is the "Neuralink" segment that will change the future in a frightening way.

The chip will be installed in the brain .. The chip reads everything inside your brain’s dialect, and it will perform almost all the functions .. You will expect, plan and solve all your problems, and the place of implantation will allow it to treat many problems such as vision, hearing, memory, psychological problems and addiction ... etc. 😮

You can also communicate with the chip through your electronic devices such as the phone, and the car, and it will have a permanent development of the chip, for example there will be an upcoming development, through which you will be able to cancel any feeling that hurts you, such as feeling pain and sadness 🙄

You can also control your memories and even your dreams and store them in the form of files .. If you feel upset, you will be able to activate the memory that will make you happy.

This achievement is still under experience, but it is considered one of the most important that the human mind has reached ... 🤷‍♂️

What did you think was it possible to apply this slide in the real world? Give me your opinion in the comments ... 🏃‍♂️

The History of the Printing Press

Throughout the past 4000 years, record keeping has been an integral part of human civilization.
Record  keeping,  which  allows  humans  to  store  information  physically  for  later  thought,  has
advanced  with  technology.  Improvements  in  material  science  improved  the  writing  surface  of
records,  improvements  with  ink  increased  the  durability  of  records,  and  printing  technology
increased the speed of recording. One such printing technology is the printing press, an invention
that allowed mass production of text for the first time. The printing press has influenced human
communication, religion, and psychology in numerous ways.

The printing press was invented by  Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg, born to a
wealthy merchant family in 1398 in the German city of Mainz. He studied at the University of
Erfurt in 1419. Later in his life, in 1448, using a loan from his brother-in-law Arnold Gelthus, he
began developing a moveable type printing press. By 1450, the Gutenberg printing press was in
full  operation  printing  German  poems.  With  the  financial  aid  of  Johann  Fust,  Gutenberg
published his 1282 page Bible with  42 lines per page. This bible, more commonly known as the
Gutenberg  Bible,  was  considered  the  first  mass-produced  book  in  history  because  180
 copies were printed. (―Gutenberg, Johann,‖ n.d., para. 1-4).

The  printing  press  was  first  brought  to  England  by  William  Caxton.  In  1469,  Caxton
learned  how  to  use  the  press  in  order  to  sell  books  to  the  English  nobility.
The  first  book  he printed, his own translation of the History of Troy, had great success and
enabled him to craft his own printing press in Michaelmas, England in 1476. The first piece
of English printing, A Letter of Indulgence  by John Sant, was printed with this press,
thus ushering in a new era for English literature.

Printing  technology  was  brought  to  America  almost  two  centuries  later.  British  settlers  often
established printing presses to provide spiritual texts for colonists; thus, it is no surprise that a
printing press was brought to Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1638. Printers often produced their
own paper using the same techniques that were used in England. In 1690, William Rittenhouse
(Rittenhausen),  a German printer who learned fine Dutch paper making practices, revolutionized
American  printing  when  he  established  the  first  American  paper  mill  in  Germantown,
Pennsylvania. Printers now had access to cheaper paper and had more time to work on their trade
(On printing in America, n.d., para. 3).

Even after the news of Gutenberg‘s invention spread to other European countries, people
did not adapt quickly to the new printing style. In the fifteenth century, literacy was confined to a
small elite group that was wealthier than others. With a small percentage of people who could
read, the demand for books was relatively small. The practice of hand-copying books, which was
done for centuries by monks and scalars, produced a very low output of expensive books  with
many mistakes. Still, the early printing press was slower and more expensive than hand-copying;
therefore, written word was preferred as a relatively cheap, portable, and rapid method of storing
and transmitting information (Volti, n.d., para. 1-6).

Basic Science and Technology
The printing press clearly relies on a medium that allows the printer to record using ink.
Dating back to 15,000 B.C.E., humans have recorded on surfaces such as cave walls, tree bark,
stone,  clay,  wood,  wax,  metal,  papyrus,  vellum,and parchment, and  paper. However,  printers
were constantly searching for new materials because many of these surfaces were not sufficient.
For example, cave paintings, in which pictures  were drawn on cave walls, were impossible to
transport and difficult to see without light. Papyrus (compressed sheets of Egyptian reed stalk),
as well as vellum and parchment (the prepared skin of cow, lamb, goat, and sheep), were high in
cost and deteriorated quickly. Clay, which dries fast, was difficult to use (―Paper,‖ n.d., para. 1).
At the end of the seventeenth century, it was necessary that printers begin exploring other
sources of paper because the worldwide production of paper lagged behind the capability of the
printing  press.  Previous  to  this  time,  the  methods  to  produce  pape were very similar  to the
methods  used  in  ancient  China  because  paper  producing  technology  was  adequate  for  the
demand. When the printing press became popular in colonial America, the mass production of
newspapers  led  to  paper  shortage.  In  order  to  remedy  this  problem,  linens  from  mummy
wrappings  were  imported  from  the  East.  Mummy wrappings and rags were  mixed and turned
into pulp to create mummy paper. On average, the linens from a single mummy could supply two
average seventeenth  century Americans for a year. Although this source nullified the scarcity of
paper,  it  had  non-ideal  qualities  such  as  brown discoloration, oils, and botanical  residue;  in
addition, this source angered archeologists and decreased in supply (Wolfe, 2004, paras. 1-3).
The most effective paper is made from pulped plant fiber. Originating from China in 105
A.D., plant fiber from the mulberry tree was used to make paper (―Paper,‖ n.d., para. 2). When
the process spread to Europe from the Arabs in the sixteenth  century, Europeans used the pulp of
cotton and linen rags because they were available in large quantities. Although these people used
different materials than the Chinese, the cloth was turned into a pulp and made into paper using a
method similar to the ancient Chinese method. Beginning in 1850, paper producers began to use
wood as the primary source of plant fiber because it was abundant. However, wood grinders at
the time were not effective enough to produce pulp: there were often solid chunks of wood which
led to low quality paper. On the other hand, the quality of wood pulp paper was still better than
the  quality  of  rag  pulp  paper.  As  grinding  machines  advanced,  the practice of manufacturing
wood pulp paper became more refined  and efficient.  In modern times,  most paper mills  grind
wood into pulp and then apply a chemical process that uses steam along with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and sodium sulfide (Na2SO3) to digest the wood chips to produce a finer pulp
 (―Paper,‖ n.d., para. 7).

As  the  population  became  more  literate  and  the  newspaper  became  more  popular  into
mid-eighteenth century, the demand for printed material skyrocketed. Printers could now make
more money by printing faster. Because the population was interested in current news, there was
a need  for printers to devise a technique to print the news faster. The first breakthrough came in
1812 when Friedrich Koenig and Friedrich Bauer invented the steam-powered press. This press
was  able  to  print  1,100  newspapers  per  hour,  approximately  four  times  the  speed  of
 manual presses.  The  greatest  printing  press  improvement  came  from  Richard  Hoe  in  1847
  when  he engineered a rotary printing press. Instead of laying movable type on a flat bed, the type
 was set onto the outside of a large cylinder. Paper was then placed on a flat bed. When the cylinder
 was rotated, paper would feed into the machine with high pressure between the flat bed and cylinder,
thus allowing contact for the ink to be imprinted onto the paper. This inventory further improved
the press, called the Hoe press or lightning press, by adding another cylinder. In addition, using
even more cylinders, Hoe devised a machine that could print of both sides of a continuous piece
of paper patented by France's Nicholas Louis Robert in 1798.

Language  is  another  important  consideration  to  printing.  Printers  who  used  moveable
type printing presses had to hand lay each letter that they wanted to print; thus, the printer needed
to cast each letter to be able to print. Moreover, the same letter was often used mu ltiple times for
each press indicating that it is necessary to cast many of the same letters. A language with more
letters,  such  as  Chinese,  requires  a  vaster  base set of letters compared  to a language  such  as
English. Movable type for languages that have fewer letters is easier to replace and manufacture.
In countries such as China, hand-copying was much more effective than the printing press until
the press became much more advanced (Printing, 2009, Original letterpress plates section, para. 3).

Impact of the Printing Press on History
The  printing  press  influenced  communication  in  numerous  ways.  Before  the  printing
press, explorers could only record manually. Because it was very expensive to have many books
copied,  maps  were  very  scarce;  therefore,  the  information  discovered by mapmakers was not
used often. When it became cheaper to print, explorers were able to share their information with
others, thus allowing increased education and easier navigation. The printing press also allowed
scientists of all fields to compare their findings with others. Scientific theories started to form on
a large scale because more supportive evidence  was accessible.  In mathematics, a  field which
relies heavily on uniform systems, mathematicians were able to build upon other works as they
became available. All people were able to educate themselves better with more accessible and
affordable text. Also, scientists were able to spend more time thinking about scientific concepts
and less time copying previous research. The printing press  clearly influenced  communication
(Volti, n.d., para. 1-3).

Religion was impacted by the printing press in several ways. As the amount of written
communication increased, ideas spread easily. Religious ideas were no exception. Martin Luther,
the leader of the protestant reformation, utilized print technology in order to spread his views.
The Christian church had no control over the spread of such religious ideas. To halt the spread of
these ideas, the Church would have to bring to a standstill the production of all printing presses.
However, this would mean halting the printing of the Bible, a message that the Church did not
want  to  send.  In  order  to  read  the  Bible,  many  people  became  literate.  It  is  evident  that  the
printing press affected religious movements (Volti, n.d., para. 7-9).

The printing press has influenced psychology in several major ways. Before the printing
press, people were apt to believe that the text they were reading was true because only the most
noteworthy information was recorded. Since the printing press became popular at the end of the
eighteenth  century,  everything  from  medical  textbooks  to  treaties  on  astrology  were  widely
distributed.  With  so  much  original  research  circulating,  it  is  no  surprise  that  much  of  it  was
contradictory.
People  became  less  willing  to  accept  the  judgment  of  a  single  individual  or  a group
of  individuals.  As  a  result,  a  more  critical  approach  to  understanding  emerged.  The
printing of newspapers also impacted the psychology of people worldwide. The farther away that
a reader was to a newspaper printing business, which were often located in cities, the more time
it would take to get a newspaper. When newspapers first came out, travel was relatively slow;
thus, it took even longer to get a newspaper. People lived closer to cities in order to improve their
access to newspapers. Thus, urbanization increased. In addition, a culture based on print media
was more individualistic than a culture based on collective means of communication. Because
the  printing  press  caused  a  movement  away  from  the  church,  people  had  less  collective
communication  and  more  individual  thought.  The  printing  press  brought  about  fundamental
change in the psychology of educated people (Volti, n.d., para. 4).

internet invention

The Sputnik Scare

On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world’s first manmade satellite into orbit. The satellite, known as Sputnik, did not do much: It tumbled aimlessly around in outer space, sending blips and bleeps from its radio transmitters as it circled the Earth. Still, to many Americans, the beach-ball-sized Sputnik was proof of something alarming: While the brightest scientists and engineers in the United States had been designing bigger cars and better television sets, it seemed, the Soviets had been focusing on less frivolous things—and they were going to win the Cold War because of it.

After Sputnik’s launch, many Americans began to think more seriously about science and technology. Schools added courses on subjects like chemistry, physics and calculus. Corporations took government grants and invested them in scientific research and development. And the federal government itself formed new agencies, such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), to develop space-age technologies such as rockets, weapons and computers.

The Birth of the ARPAnet

Scientists and military experts were especially concerned about what might happen in the event of a Soviet attack on the nation’s telephone system. Just one missile, they feared, could destroy the whole network of lines and wires that made efficient long-distance communication possible. In 1962, a scientist from M.I.T. and ARPA named J.C.R. Licklider proposed a solution to this problem: a “galactic network” of computers that could talk to one another. Such a network would enable government leaders to communicate even if the Soviets destroyed the telephone system.
In 1965, another M.I.T. scientist developed a way of sending information from one computer to another that he called “packet switching.” Packet switching breaks data down into blocks, or packets, before sending it to its destination. That way, each packet can take its own route from place to place. Without packet switching, the government’s computer network—now known as the ARPAnet—would have been just as vulnerable to enemy attacks as the phone system.

"LOGIN"

In 1969, ARPAnet delivered its first message: a “node-to-node” communication from one computer to another. (The first computer was located in a research lab at UCLA and the second was at Stanford; each one was the size of a small house.)  The message—“LOGIN”—was short and simple, but it crashed the fledgling ARPA network anyway: The Stanford computer only received the note’s first two letters.

The Network Grows

By the end of 1969, just four computers were connected to the ARPAnet, but the network grew steadily during the 1970s. In 1971, it added the University of Hawaii’s ALOHAnet, and two years later it added networks at London’s University College and the Royal Radar Establishment in Norway. As packet-switched computer networks multiplied, however, it became more difficult for them to integrate into a single worldwide “Internet.”

By the end of the 1970s, a computer scientist named Vinton Cerf had begun to solve this problem by developing a way for all of the computers on all of the world’s mini-networks to communicate with one another. He called his invention “Transmission Control Protocol,” or TCP. (Later, he added an additional protocol, known as “Internet Protocol.” The acronym we use to refer to these today is TCP/IP.)  One writer describes Cerf’s protocol as “the ‘handshake’ that introduces distant and different computers to each other in a virtual space.”

The World Wide Web

Cerf’s protocol transformed the Internet into a worldwide network. Throughout the 1980s, researchers and scientists used it to send files and data from one computer to another. However, in 1991 the Internet changed again. That year, a computer programmer in Switzerland named Tim Berners-Lee introduced the World Wide Web: an Internet that was not simply a way to send files from one place to another but was itself a “web” of information that anyone on the Internet could retrieve. Berners-Lee created the Internet that we know today.

Since then, the Internet has changed in many ways. In 1992, a group of students and researchers at the University of Illinois developed a sophisticated browser that they called Mosaic. (It later became Netscape.) Mosaic offered a user-friendly way to search the Web: It allowed users to see words and pictures on the same page for the first time and to navigate using scrollbars and clickable links. That same year, Congress decided that the Web could be used for commercial purposes. As a result, companies of all kinds hurried to set up websites of their own, and e-commerce entrepreneurs began to use the Internet to sell goods directly to customers. More recently, social networking sites like Facebook have become a popular way for people of all ages to stay connected.

famous scientists

Abu Nasr Al-Farabi

Early Life:

Al-Farabi completed his earlier education at Farab and Bukhara but, later on, he went to Baghdad for higher studies, where he studied and worked for a long time. During this period he acquired mastery over several languages as well as various branches of knowledge and technology. Farabi contributed considerably to science, philosophy, logic, sociology, medicine, mathematics and music, but the major ones are in philosophy, logic and sociology and for which he stands out as an Encyclopedist.

Contributions and Achievements:

As a philosopher, Farabi was the first to separate philosophy from theology. It is difficult to find a philosopher both in Muslim and Christian world from Middle Ages onwards who has not been influenced by his views. He believed in a Supreme Being who had created the world through the exercise of balanced intelligence. He also asserted this same rational faculty to be the sole part of the human being that is immortal, and thus he set as the paramount human goal the development of that rational faculty. He considerably gave more attention to political theory as compared to any Islamic philosopher.
Later in his work, Al-Farabi laid down in Platonic fashion the qualities necessary for the ruler, he should be inclined to rule by good quality of a native character and exhibit the right attitude for such rule. At the heart of Al-Farabi’s political philosophy is the concept of happiness in which people cooperate to gain contentment. He followed the Greek example and the highest rank of happiness was allocated to his ideal sovereign whose soul was ‘united as it were with the Active Intellect’. Therefore Farabi served as a tremendous source of aspiration for intellectuals of the middle ages and made enormous contributions to the knowledge of his day, paving the way for the later philosopher and thinkers of the Muslim world.
Farabian epistemology has both a Neoplatonic and an Aristotelian dimension. The best source for al-Farabi’s classification of knowledge is his Kitab ihsa al-ulum. This work neatly illustrates Al-Farabi’s beliefs, both esoteric and exoteric. Through all of them runs a primary Aristotelian stress on the importance of knowledge. Thus al-Farabi’s epistemology, from what has been described may be said to be encyclopedic in range and complex in articulation, using both a Neoplatonic and an Aristotelian voice.
Farabi also participated in writing books on early Muslim sociology and a notable book on music titled Kitab al-Musiqa (The Book of Music) which is in reality a study of the theory of Persian music of his day, although in the West it has been introduced as a book on Arab music. He invented several musical instruments, besides contributing to the knowledge of musical notes. It has been reported that he could play his instrument so well as to make people laugh or weep at will. Al-Farabi’s treatise Meanings of the Intellect dealt with music therapy, where he discussed the therapeutic effects of music on the soul.

Later Life:

Farabi traveled to many distant lands throughout his life and gained many experiences a lot, due to which he made so many contributions for which he is still remembered and acknowledged. Inspite of facing many hardships, he worked with full dedication and made his name among the popular scientists of history. He died a bachelor in Damascus in 339 A.H. /950 A.D. at the age of 80 years.

Invention of the PC

Invention of the PC: The Computer Age

The earliest electronic computers were not “personal” in any way: They were enormous and hugely expensive, and they required a team of engineers and other specialists to keep them running. One of the first and most famous of these, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer (ENIAC), was built at the University of Pennsylvania to do ballistics calculations for the U.S. military during World War II. ENIAC cost $500,000, weighed 30 tons and took up nearly 2,000 square feet of floor space. On the outside, ENIAC was covered in a tangle of cables, hundreds of blinking lights and nearly 6,000 mechanical switches that its operators used to tell it what to do. On the inside, almost 18,000 vacuum tubes carried electrical signals from one part of the machine to another.

Invention of the PC: Postwar Innovations

ENIAC and other early computers proved to many universities and corporations that the machines were worth the tremendous investment of money, space and manpower they demanded. (For example, ENIAC could solve in 30 seconds a missile-trajectory problem that could take a team of human “computers” 12 hours to complete.) At the same time, new technologies were making it possible to build computers that were smaller and more streamlined. In 1948, Bell Labs introduced the transistor, an electronic device that carried and amplified electrical current but was much smaller than the cumbersome vacuum tube. Ten years later, scientists at Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor came up with the integrated circuit, an invention that incorporated all of the computer’s electrical parts–transistors, capacitors, resistors and diodes–into a single silicon chip.

But one of the most significant of the inventions that paved the way for the PC revolution was the microprocessor. Before microprocessors were invented, computers needed a separate integrated-circuit chip for each one of their functions. (This was one reason the machines were still so large.) Microprocessors were the size of a thumbnail, and they could do things the integrated-circuit chips could not: They could run the computer’s programs, remember information and manage data all by themselves.

The first microprocessor on the market was developed in 1971 by an engineer at Intel named Ted Hoff. (Intel was located in California’s Santa Clara Valley, a place nicknamed “Silicon Valley” because of all the high-tech companies clustered around the Stanford Industrial Park there.) Intel’s first microprocessor, a 1/16-by-1/8-inch chip called the 4004, had the same computing power as the massive ENIAC.

The Invention of the PC

These innovations made it cheaper and easier to manufacture computers than ever before. As a result, the small, relatively inexpensive “microcomputer”–soon known as the “personal computer”–was born. In 1974, for instance, a company called Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) introduced a mail-order build-it-yourself computer kit called the Altair. Compared to earlier microcomputers, the Altair was a huge success: Thousands of people bought the $400 kit. However, it really did not do much. It had no keyboard and no screen, and its output was just a bank of flashing lights. Users input data by flipping toggle switches.

In 1975, MITS hired a pair of Harvard students named Paul G. Allen and Bill Gates to adapt the BASIC programming language for the Altair. The software made the computer easier to use, and it was a hit. In April 1975 the two young programmers took the money they made from “Altair BASIC” and formed a company of their own—Microsoft—that soon became an empire. 

The year after Gates and Allen started Microsoft, two engineers in the Homebrew Computer Club in Silicon Valley named Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak built a homemade computer that would likewise change the world. This computer, called the Apple I, was more sophisticated than the Altair: It had more memory, a cheaper microprocessor and a monitor with a screen. In April 1977, Jobs and Wozniak introduced the Apple II, which had a keyboard and a color screen. Also, users could store their data on an external cassette tape. (Apple soon swapped those tapes for floppy disks.) To make the Apple II as useful as possible, the company encouraged programmers to create “applications” for it. For example, a spreadsheet program called VisiCalc made the Apple a practical tool for all kinds of people (and businesses)–not just hobbyists.

The PC Revolution

The PC revolution had begun. Soon companies like Xerox, Tandy, Commodore and IBM had entered the market, and computers became ubiquitous in offices and eventually homes. Innovations like the “Graphical User Interface,” which allows users to select icons on the computer screen instead of writing complicated commands, and the computer mouse made PCs even more convenient and user-friendly. Today, laptops, smart phones and tablet computers allow us to have a PC with us wherever we go.

The invention of electric bulb

How does electricity light, all enclosed in a small glass structure? Several scientists have broken this challenge head on without success. Thomas Edison, one of the greatest inventors tried his luck after a revelation during a trip to the Sierra Madre in Wyoming.
The Wizard of Menlo Park did not skimp on displaying this new invention the counter. To develop the filament capable of emitting light in the bulb to the passage of electricity, sent several partners around the world to find the perfect material. Balance: 6,000 plant samples were brought to him and tested. Stubborn, made ​​no less than 1200 times before finding the right one carbonized bamboo filament.

The suites at the invention of carbonized bamboo Problem: burn after 30 hours. Lewis Howard Latimer intends to remedy this problem by creating an incandescent bulb with carbon filament. He patented his invention in 1882. Largo, these bulbs have been used before seeing modern tungsten lamps. Tungsten is much harder than the metal carbon. Its melting point is very high, about 3422 ° C, resulting in improved heat resistance.
Other lamps have emerged as fluorescent lamps or light emitting diodes

The microscope

The microscope: the history of an invention

The optical microscope and imaging techniques have enabled the infinitesimal considerable advances in the fields of biology and medicine. We propose to trace the history of this invention also has applications in the study of rocks and materials.

Summary

• Presentation
• The first magnifying instruments
• The invention of the optical microscope
• Advances in microscopy

Presentation

A microscope is an optical instrument for examining objects too small to be seen with the naked eye and observe the details. 
Similarly a magnifying glass, this instrument with a lens and a eyepiece can magnify the image of the objects observed. 
microscopes have applications in biology to observe cells and tissues, petrology (study of rocks), in metallurgy and metallography. 

The first magnifying instruments

At the end of the thirteenth century, magnifying glasses were used for vision correction. So we knew at that time cutting and polishing lenses, which allowed the invention of the telescope and the microscope. use of simple microscope (consisting of a single lens glass like a simple magnifying glass) in History Natural dated XIV century . invention of the compound microscope (consisting of two lens groups) goes about it in the late sixteenth century , but the authorship of this invention is controversial. 

The invention of the optical microscope

The invention of the microscope is usually attributed to the Dutch opticians Jansen father and son . They have built in1590 the first microscope consists of two convex lenses (one lens for magnification, the other eye). At the same time, in 1609, Galileo constructed a Occhiolino , a compound microscope convex lens and concave another. Note : the name "microscope" was formally established in 1645 by Demisiano. This invention has numerous discoveries, including that of the cell by Robert Hooke in 1665. In treated Micrographia (1667), Robert Hooke presented a three lens microscope glass cast that already present form, with a table for carrying the object, a system developed and a lighting system condenser consists of a hot water and a plano-convex lens. 

Advances in microscopy

The Dutchman Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) is generally acknowledged as the father of microscopy. It Mitdevelopment and use microscopes to perform many simple observations. 
He was thus one of the first to describe bacteria and protozoa to detect blood and blood circulation in the legs of a frog and observe the fibers nerve cells of the epidermis. At the end of the seventeenth century, Christiaan Huygens , another Dutchman, developed a simple two ocular lenses to correct chromatic aberrations, which represented a major advance in the development of the microscope. However, it took until the nineteenth century that the microscopes are sophisticated and allow multiple discoveries, including that of the cell nucleus by Brown in 1831, the cell division or that pathogens (which led to the invention of the first vaccines). leprosy bacilli have been discovered by Hansen in 1874, those of tuberculosis by Koch in 1882 and those of plague by Yersin in 1894. 

Technology - The innovations that marked 2012

Photo: Agence France-Presse Justin Sullivanhas been a long year for those waiting BB10 operating system from RIM. The device, which should be launched on 31 January 2013, represents the last hope for the company led by Thorsten Heins to take its place in the world of mobile telephony.
A new year, a new smart phone. In 2012, fans of Apple were not tempted by an iPad, or even two, but three, including the most recent in reduced size.

Research in Motion (RIM) has launched its new phones failed to finish the year in style, but missed the boat.

Small steps have also been taken to encourage Canadian consumers to use e-commerce via mobile phone while watching digital video equipment has become commonplace.

The Canadian Press has identified the major tech innovations of the year continue to develop upstream, and those who have failed.

Apple will be great challenges. Manufacturers have been slow to develop a digital tablet which is akin to the Apple iPad, but the gap has narrowed significantly this year with the Asus and Samsung devices.

As was expected, Google has given a blow against the iPad mini fixing the suggested retail price of its small tablet Nexus 7 $ 209. When the iPad was launched mini months later, it seemed expensive at $ 329. Apple will need hardware and software that changes the game for the next iPad, or risk losing a substantial portion of the tablet market to the benefit of the competition, with its products as effective, but cheaper.

Apple faces a similar threat with smart phones. Google Android phones, cheaper, stormed the market for low-end phones, while its luxury models compete with the iPhone. Windows phones have not yet become popular, but have shown promise, and it remains to be seen whether RIM will take its place among the leaders in the mobile industry with its new BB10 operating system.

Apple will also address the controversial Google Maps, which forced the American company to admit that she had made a mistake by abandoning the popular application without having something to offer as well.

Growth of online video . According to a survey published earlier this year, one in four Canadians spent more time watching videos online than on television, 16% of respondents reported spending as much time view content online than watching TV.Canadians have learned that there was a lot of activity on the Internet, whether social networks like Facebook, YouTube videos, and TV episodes or movies offered on websites or on Netflix .

And according to a recent survey commissioned by the federal government, one in three Canadians downloading or viewing videos continuous play (streaming), and 12% reported doing so every day or once a week.

The same survey indicated that 48% of respondents owned a smartphone, and 24% had a tablet on which they could see a movie. But cost remains a barrier to online viewing on cell phones. In return, cafes, fast food chains and airports have begun to offer wireless Internet to capture a TV or YouTube clips to kill time.

The advent of virtual wallet. Regulars have probably noticed Starbucks customers paying for their coffee or drink with their smartphone. It is a popular examples of virtual portfolio, where the purchasing power is housed on the phone. The payment application Starbucks is actually a link to prepaid credits like those on a gift card.

Apple devices are equipped with the latest tool "Passbook", which allows users to store electronic copies of boarding passes for flights, movie tickets and sporting events, travel rewards and coupons.

Buying online mobile via smartphones or tablets, is also expected to grow next year, but the sector is growing rather slowly in Canada. A survey commissioned by Google and released in May suggests that only 20% of Canadians have already made a purchase on a mobile device, and only 16% believed that increasing the number of purchases by phone next year.

A year to forget for RIM. The year 2012 was long for those waiting BB10 operating system manufacturer Research in Motion is expected to be launched on 31 January 2013 and represents the last hope for the Canadian company to resume its place in the world of mobile telephony.

Those who have seen the phone preview indicated that RIM had finally developed a phone that can compete with the iPhone and Android. But some applications fun and easy to use will not convince users to abandon Apple. It is expected that RIM focuses again on the corporate market. In addition, investors have had a roller coaster year with losses early in the year before the stock bouncing in the fall.

Inventors Killed By Their Own Inventions

An invention is said to be the 'baby' of an inventor. Inventors dedicate their time, energy and resources to perfect what they believe is a result of their creative genius. What if the cost of their invention is their life? Have a look at the most famous inventors killed by their own inventions.

The Word Web Dictionary defines an inventor as "someone who is the first to think of or make something". While most of us would be 'inventors', if only the 'thinking' part was taken into consideration, there are a few who go one step further and actually put their 'unique' thoughts into action. It is because of these proactive people, who are passionate about their ideas and are willing to take risks, that the world has progressed over the years. Ironically, there are some inventors who were killed by their own inventions. These deaths were either a direct result of the invention (like when the invention failed during a test or when the invention crashed while being used) or indirect cause of the inventor's death (like in case of exposure to harmful elements in a lab or fatal infection caused by an accident involving the invention or malfunction of the invention itself).

Given below is a list of the most famous inventors killed by their inventions.

It would be utter cowardice to say that it is better to keep 'thinking' instead of 'doing' just because some were unfortunate enough to pay with their lives for their creativity. Besides, many of the inventions mentioned above have played an important role in the development of man. Maybe the dying words of one such inventor (Otto Lilienthal) best describes the significance of losing a life for an invention - "Sacrifices must be made."
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/inventors-killed-by-their-own-inventions.html

Industry Best iPhone Application Development

By Daina Will

iPhone is a great invention of Apple Inc. Today, it is the king in the smart phone device market. 
Its popularity and sales volume is very high in comparison to other mobile devices. 
This is because of its marvel and useful features. Its strong functionality put it in the different 
row in the smart phone market. It has created its own market 'iPhone Market'. 
Its large screen and high resolution display is tremendous in gaming, graphics and themes,
and provides the best eye-catching output.

You can see or hear its name in your day-to-day life many times. Its popularity is everywhere. It has proven that it is the best from other smart phone devices as far as the application capability is concerned. You can get it from Apple store also. It has covered all the sectors like gaming, sports, entertainment, weather, news and many more. It fulfills the requirement for the enterprise. It proves as the helping hand, in today's life, for the people, whether they are the household, employees, small business owners or large enterprise runner.

To fulfill the requirement of them, and increase the market of it, many companies are in the competition to utilize the demand of its market to earn money. If you are its user and want to utilize your device in the best manner then you need to hire experts. If you are the owner of this device then you are aware of its greatness and capacity. However, they know more than you. They are aware of its complete features.

Now-a-days, almost all the mobile solution companies are engaged in developing it to convert the demand into the financial returns. You can get enough resources for the development but choose the best company containing experts.

Today's demanding iPhone apps are as follow:

• Business and Sales

• Multimedia

• Social networking

• Theme and icon

• Weather

• Travels and Booking

• News

• Gaming

• Entertainment and Fun

• Navigation

• Radio

• Product Catalogue

• Utility

• Internet

• E-Book

• Finance

• GPRS

• Health

• Lifestyle

• Shopping

Apart from the above, you can also come with your ideas and requirement. They can provide you such services because of their expertise and experience. Means, you can customize your existing application into a unique and attractive one. They are the best in providing such service as per your instructions and needs.

Ultimately, one thing left, which is a more important aspect for everyone, is 'Cost'. Don't think much about the cost for these services because they are available at effective cost. You can avail it at an affordable rate. So, fulfill your tremendous iPhone needs to make it more attractive. You can get more than you pay and in a better way.

Thus, iPhone application development is the today's need of the world. It saves time and money both, which is the best thing for every user. It is also very effective from the business prospective. Hire iPhone app developer to get unique and magnetic apps.

HISTORY WC: THE EVOLUTION OF A HEALTH FACILITIES

Did you know that flushing toilets existed there for thousands of years? Although we still do not know with certainty whether Indian, Chinese and Sumerians were the first to use such a toilet there 4000 or 5000 years, we are sure of one thing: to 2500 BC, the Greeks already had toilets and sewage systems. Approximately 1000 years later, the Romans built the "Cloaca Maxima" the vast sewer of ancient Rome. They also had latrines but whose use was reserved for the rich, who settled there several convivialement and there discussing their small business while doing what they had to do.

The fall of the Roman Empire also resulted in the disappearance of the early health culture. Central Europe in the Middle Ages, the stench was everywhere: the toilet flush did not exist more than systems of sewage disposal, each was therefore needs outside or emptied his pot room in the gutter.

It was not until the late 16th century that things began to change: the English poet Sir John Harington invented the toilet first "modern" response to a request of his famous aunt, Queen Elizabeth I. His contemporaries mocked this invention, considering that it was a bad joke, so that the first law of modern times fell into oblivion, while Harington had yet made specific plans.

Nearly 200 years later, in 1775, the English inventor Alexander Cummings invented the toilet equipped with S-shaped pipe still used today and patented this system:

the triumphal march of "water closet" had begun.

During the second half of the 19th century, scientists such as Louis Pasteur realized that there was a link between the disease and health - increasing importance was therefore attached to this notion. The specialist Villeroy & Boch ceramics realized early on that the field of sanitary equipment (bath, washbasin, toilet, tiles) offered a tremendous commercial potential. In 1870, Villeroy & Boch began to equip public baths, private bathrooms and hospitals tiles easy to clean. The company began to offer a small range of urinals and toilets in the mid-1870s. The development of new production methods and new materials enabled soon reach the stage of industrial production: thanks to the new "sanitary ware", Villeroy & Boch was able - from 1899 - to produce sanitary fittings and facilities with flushing system in such large quantities that they became available also in broad layers of the population. The democratization of culture and hygiene bath was launched.

But by 1950, the housing were generally not equipped with WC in Germany they had in the best case a simple bathroom.

It took until the 1960s to see a change: the bathroom became a functional part devoted to hygiene and arranged as practical and ergonomic as possible.

During the 1970s, the bathroom started to gain its status as a place of relaxation.In 1975, Luigi Colani created for Villeroy & Boch bathroom design almost revolutionary when it was the first time a designer is interested in objects equipped bathroom and toilet. Colani gave them a design based on ergonomic principles and imaginative soft shapes and tailored to the body.

There are now a wide range of WC , who wear different shapes and various colors and have additional comfort features: WC WC on foot or hanging together and WC cistern water or installation not recessed, flat-bottomed bowl with intermediate ceramic cup or washdown with direct access to the water. But that's not all: in recent years, several innovations have been designed to increase comfort to the bathroom. Recognizing that water is an increasingly precious resource, Villeroy & Boch offers systems flushing as modern and environmentally Omnia GreenGain or AQUAREDUCT who merely 3.5 to 4.5 liters of water. The ceramic surface Ceramicplus is also very convincing ease of maintenance is such that it reduces the amount of water and detergent use. Comfort between the toilet elsewhere in a new dimension with the WC PurAir , which is equipped with an integrated technology designed to reduce odors.

The Role Of a Netbook In A Student's Lif

By Humera Ehsan

Netbooks are very common these days, and have made their place in the world of technology. Students are now more inclined towards this small gadget instead of a laptop, or any latest mobile. It plays an important role academically in a student's life, and that's described here.

Small Size: Students are already loaded with books, and other stuff; hence they have started taking a laptop an extra burden, but the netbooks are lighter in weight ranging from 1.6 to 1.76 Kg. This is an ideal technology for young students, who find it difficult to carry heavy machines.

Well-Compacted: A netbook is more compact than a laptop, and students find it very comfortable during lectures, while taking notes on it. The gadget will not annoy you in public due to this quality.

Well Equipped With Academic Tasks: During an academic period, the projects become easier to do on a netbook through Microsoft words, PowerPoint, Excel, and Photoshop. As, the battery life is up to ten hours, so there is nothing to worry about, if your presentation gets longer in an exam. Same lies true for office work when meetings sometimes prolong, but this small machine would stand by you till the end.

Provides Better Digital Writing: In a digitally noted lecture, it becomes easier for a student to make amendments in the lecture. On the other hand, a student who had missed his or her class can take notes from a friend through email. Though, a laptop also provides such features, but handling a netbook is easier than that.

Less Interruption: This is not an ideal gadget for playing games; hence there would be less interruption during a lecture, or while taking notes. A student would never love to wander around the screen other than the academic work.

Improved Performance: As you can work faster on it, and there is no writing issue, so a high quality work becomes possible. The student can also keep in touch with a teacher in non-academic hours through Skype, or any other way of chat. If you get fed up of a home, or school environment, you can take it along to a park to do presentations, or assignments.

Easy Cloud Computing: A netbook is especially designed to do cloud computing in a better way, and this technology has eliminated certain issues that occur due to incompatibility between personal computers, and college servers. Moreover, there are also less chances of a printer failure and data loss.

Though, the netbook is not as strong as a large laptop, but the machine is ideal for a person who has to move around a lot due to academic, or office work.

Different Types Of 3D TV's

By Graham J Baylis

There has been a great deal of interest in 3D TVs recently and the technology is really moving quickly. All the major manufacturers are developing their systems. They are available in a number of designs and sizes so there is bound to be one for you. However, this makes for a bewildering choice for the uninitiated and where to begin could seem quite confusing. There is a way of helping to simplify the types of 3D television and the first is the technology, do you want active or passive?

In order to understand the 2 types, you must first understand the technology. Active 3D requires that the viewer wears special 3D glasses. These special active shutter glasses work in conjunction with the television by alternatively allowing images to either the left or the right by blanking the opposite side. The passive type allows viewers to watch in 3D with less technical glasses. This technology works by combining the images presented to each eye to create a 3D picture by use of polarised lenses.

There are of course pros and cons to all things and this is no different. The active 3D glasses require batteries in order to work. They have shutters which have been built in so that they can alternate the frames to each eye at very high speeds without the viewer noticing. It is the speed of the shutters that create the 3D effect and these glasses are able to interact with the TV by transmitter. The best thing about this system, is that the viewer watches in full HD as well as 3D. The downside is that the glasses can be uncomfortable and they are expensive to buy. They can also occasionally, cause the wearer to feel nauseous or headachy but as the technology develops, this will hopefully become less of a problem.

The passive 3D glasses are much lighter, simpler and cheaper to buy. This system is known to reduce flicker and works by having 2 different lenses which have different polarization. There is also a polarized layer on the television. The downside is that there can be a loss of picture quality.

The next thing you need to look at is the display type of the TV. There are LED, plasma and LCD screens to choose from. You need to look at each display type as a 3D television and the one main difference between them is the refresh rate. Plasma screens have performed well here but LED and LCD screens have caught up as their technology has advanced. For most people the difference in picture quality is not apparent until the sets are seen side by side. There may not be much difference even then until you watch something like a fast moving sport.

Lastly, you should consider the display size. Where 3D TV is concerned, bigger is usually better. However, take into account the size of the room and your budget. An over large screen will not be nice to watch in a small room, so try and choose one that befits the room it will be situated in. As a general rule, the ideal distance to be seated from the screen is approximately three or four times the height of the television.

How Ultrasound Technology Benefits Humanity

By Nancy Redding

We use many different types of medical technologies to help to keep our health at optimum levels. This type of technology is something that is evolving on a regular basis and there are certainly methods that are available today that were not available just a few short years ago. An example of this is ultrasound, something that has been used successfully in medicine for just a few decades. It has assisted doctors in being able to diagnose and treat their patients in many cases, without ever doing any type of surgery. What is an ultrasound and how has this type of medical technology benefited humanity?

Ultrasound, when used medically is for the purpose of being able to view what is inside of the body without having to open the body to see it. All of your muscles, tendons and a wide variety of your internal workings can easily be seen using this type of technology. They can also help to see other things that may be in the body, some of which do not belong there. The type of technology that is being used is known as sonography. It bounces waves off of what is inside of your body and then gives a visual of what is inside by measuring the amount of time that it takes for those waves to return to the ultrasound medical equipment.

Most of us that are familiar with ultrasound are likely familiar with it because of how it is used with prenatal care. Using either new or preowned ultrasound machines, the doctor can look into the mother and view the child from a very young age. This can have many different benefits, including being able to see if there are any problems with the developing fetus. Many parents also appreciate the fact that they are able to see the child before it is born and if they agree, can even learn the sex of the child in advance. Of course, that is only one of the many uses of ultrasound in medicine.

This type of technology can also be used to detect any problems that are taking place within the heart. An ultrasound that is done in this way can allow the doctor to see the valves as they operate and can also allow them to check for any deposits that may be on the inside of the blood vessels. In addition, they can check the body for any blood clots that may be forming or that may exist in the blood vessels. They can then do what is necessary to break the blood clots or to filter them, depending upon the condition of the patient.

As ultrasound technology continues to improve, there is no doubt that there are going to be additional ways that it can be used to the benefit of those needing medical attention. It is something that is available in every hospital and many doctors offices are also able to get easy access to preowned ultrasound equipment that is affordable and use it for diagnostic purposes.